INTRODUCTION
Theory
and practice in sustainable development have over the years got policy
practitioners and the academia on constant search for a formula that guarantees
development for the third world on continues basis. In this regard, global,
regional, sub- regional and local policy makers and theorists constantly align
and re- align their objectives and approaches to tackling developmental issues
in order to rid humanity of challenges confronting it as far as development is
concerned. In view of the slow pace of attaining global development objectives,
the United Nations (UN), at the dawn of the new millennium initiated the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in its millennium declaration at the UN
general assembly in New York, the year 2000 in order to comprehensively tackle
the challenges of development through a global, continental, regional, sub-
regional, national and sub- national institutional frameworks (UN & World
Health Organization, [WHO], 2005; UN Economic Commission for Africa [UNECA],
2015; UN, 2010; 2015).
In the
same vein, African leaders equally championed a home grown, continental
strategy for sustainable development through the institutional framework of the
Organization of African Unity (OAU) [later, African Union, AU], the continent
merged three development plans (The Omega Plan of Abdoulaye Wade, Millennium
Africa Recovery Plan [MAP] of Thabo Mbeki and New Africa Initiative [NAI],
which itself was a product of the former two) into the New Partnership for
Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in order to bring development within the ambit of
democracy and good governance, peace and security and to extricate Africa from
the clutches of poverty and backwardness, while it projects Africa as partner
in the increasingly globalizing world, rather than a subordinate to especially
Organization of Economic Community and Development (OECD) countries. Further,
African governments serve as checks on each other as regards democracy and good
governance through the African Peer Review Mechanism [APRM] (Kanbru, 2001; cited
in African Union [AU] & NEPAD, 2003; Taylor, [n. d]; NEPAD, 2001; 2010; UN
Centre for Trade and Development [UNCTAD], 2012).
Successive
Governments in Nigeria are not left behind in this frenetic search for a
development formula that delivers socio- economic development to her own
citizens. Consequent upon all efforts to tackle development challenges, the
Nigerian government, under the leadership of Goodluck Ebele Jonathan initiated
the Subsidy Re-investment and Empowerment Programme (SURE- P), resultant from
the reduction in petroleum price subsidy in that country, the basic aim of
which is to mitigate the impact of reduction in subsidy by the said government
through intervention in infrastructure and provision of social safety net
programmes. The programme was to terminate in 2015, coincidentally, the same
year MDGs was terminating. Equally, beginning from 13th February
2012, the programme was also designed to achieve the vision 20: 2020, a
development goal that places Nigeria among twenty (20) most developed nations
in the world by the year 2020 (SURE- P, 2012; Okwudili & Ugwuerua, 2014;
George, 2014).
Closely related to this quest for
sustainable development are those organizations referred to by Harris (2000) as
‘the third sector’- Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Being organizations
established, not for the purpose of profit making but championing the cause of
the less privilege in society, NGOs at local, sub- national, national and
international levels exist to augment the efforts of governments and
international development and donor agencies in delivering on development
programmes and projects, especially to the less privileged members of their
operating society. At times, these serve as checks on negligent, un- wielding,
unaccountable and authoritative governments (Harris, 2000; Heywood, 2011).
Against this background, this paper
utilizes the sustainable development theory by collecting data from documented
sources such as journals, newspapers, policy documents- both local and
international, while at the same instance using the qualitative analytical
method to assess the levels of development brought about by MDGs, NEPAD, SURE-
P and roles played by NGOs in the same regard, to initiate and sustain
development programmes and projects in Nigeria.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
MILLENNIUM
DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) is a global commitment undertaken by all member states
of the UN to particularly eradicate extreme poverty and hunger by the year
2015. Accordingly, all member states pledged, in what was termed the
‘millennium declaration’ to evolve a global partnership for the eradication of
extreme poverty and hunger by identifying eight goals through which poverty can
be eradicated and development instituted, and these Development goals included:
i.
Eradicating extreme
poverty and hunger;
ii.
Achieve universal
primary education;
iii.
Promote gender equality
and empower women;
iv.
Reduce child mortality;
v.
Improve maternal
health;
vi.
Combat HIV/AIDS and
other diseases;
vii.
Ensure environmental
sustainability; and
viii.
Develop global
partnership for development
These millennium development goals objectives were
to be attained within a twenty five year period, fifteen from its inception,
that is from 1990 to 2015 (UN, 2001; 2015; Mbaya, 2009). In this regard,
targets were set for each of the MDGs which shall be discussed thus:
i.
Eradicate extreme
poverty and hunger
This goal has been designed to reduce by half, the
number of people whose income is less than one dollar twenty five cents (US $1.25)
a day between 1990 and 2015, and equally to halve the number of people living
in extreme hunger within the same period. At the inauguration of MDGs, up to one
point four (1.4) billion of the six point one billion (6.1) people in the world
are extremely poor. In fact, the rate of extreme poverty in Africa as at 1990
stood at 56.5% of the world population. The target set by MDGs was to reduce
this level of poverty and hunger to 28.25% by the year 2015. For the purpose of
assessment and record keeping, poverty and hunger have been reduced to 48.4% as
at 2010, which implies that going by the rate at which the aim is being pursued
this goal could fall short of the expected target (MDG, 2010; 2015). In
addition, collection of data has been hampered by lots of challenges to
ascertain the true nature of achievements made. For instance, only thirty out
of the fifty four African countries can provide data to the UN MDGs on the said
target, out of which only twenty four out of the thirty are sluggishly
recording progress in that regard (MDGs, 2010; 2015).
ii.
Achieve universal
primary education
The target set for this goal is that children, both
boys and girls alike in all parts of the world would be able to complete a full
course of primary education by 2015, and
by implication, beyond 2015 (italics mine). What this suggests is that 100%
target has been set for this goal, and any short fall in its achievement cannot
be tolerated (MDG, 2010; 2015). By the
year 2012 a reasonable progress has been made in this regard with especially
the African net enrollment of children in primary schools. However, the target
is still far from being attained, especially in Africa with one third of the
67% primary school enrolled children dropping out before completing the primary
education course (MDG, 2015). With this available statistics, it implies that
33.3% of African children are not educated up to primary school level. To cap
it all up, barely 20% of African countries reached the set target by 2012 (MDG,
2015).
iii.
Promote gender equality
and empower women
Under this subhead of the MDGs UN member states are
to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by
2005, and at all levels of education not later than 2015. Furthermore, the goal
also aims to end disparity in social, political and economic spheres of UN
member nations by the year 2015(MDG, 2010; 2015). For instance it also aims to
reduce the number of women in agricultural sector employment and increase their
employment in non- agricultural sectors of the respective economies of their
countries, in addition to increasing and creating women participation in
politics and creating a level playing field in that regard (Mbaya, 2009; MDG,
2015). In this respect, there is also an improvement, especially in education
with enrolment gap narrowed to 96% girls to 100% boys in the Third World.
iv.
Reduce child mortality
Here, the aim is to reduce by two third (2/3),
between 1990 and 2015 the mortality rate of children under the age of five
(Mbaya, 2009; MDG, 2010; 2015). This would be achieved by reduction in death of
children at birth as measured by number of birth per 1000, and immunizing newly
born babies and vulnerable children under five against child killer diseases
such as measles, polio and other child killer diseases. The global infant
mortality decreased from 99 live births per 1000 to 72 in 2008, corresponding
to 28% of the child mortality reduction and well off the marked target of MDGs
(MDG, 2010). Sub- Saharan Africa has been able to curtail measles by 91% as of
2008, achieving the 90% MDG target four years from the target (ibid). Never the
less, overall progress on reduction of childhood killer diseases has been slow
in Sub- Saharan Africa with 146 deaths per 1000 in 1990 to 54 per 1000 live
births in 2012 (MDG, 2015).
v.
Improve maternal health
Maternal mortality rate is to be reduced by three
quarters between 1990 and 2015 and universal access to reproductive health is
also to be achieved within the set period. In spite of efforts put into reduction
of maternal mortality, reduction in the scourge has only been marginal, where
mortality has only reduced from 480 per 100,000 live births in 1990 to 450 per
100,000 live in 2005 (MDG, 2010). The proportion of births attended to by
skilled health personnel only increased from 53% in 1990 to 61% in 2007, and
the number of women who have had at least one antenatal visit also only
increased from 69% in 1990 to 71% in 2007 (ibid). As at 2013, Africa still
records the highest ratio of maternal mortality pegged at 289 maternal deaths
per 100,000 live births as compared to the global ratio of 210 per 100,000 live
births (MDG, 2015).
vi.
Combat HIV/AIDS,
Malaria and other diseases
Goal six of the MDGs is designed to halt and reverse
the spread of HIV/AIDS and the incidence of malaria by 2015, achieve, by 2010
universal access to treatment of HIV/AIDS to those in need of it and to halt
and begun the reverse in incidences of malaria and other major diseases (Mbaya,
2009; MDG, 2010). The number of people living with HIV/AIDS apparently peaked
in 2005 at 2.2 million victims and reducing in 2008 by 0.2 million standing at
2 million victims. In addition to improvement in the treatment of HIV/AIDS,
malaria and tuberculosis also witnessed relative reversal with the
administration of Directly Observed Treatment Short course (DOTS) for
tuberculosis and distribution of malaria treated nets in order to halt and
reverse the spread of these and other major diseases (MDG, 2015).
vii.
Ensure environmental
sustainability
MDGs integrate the principles of sustainable
development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of
environmental resources and reducing the loss of biodiversity, achieving by
2010, a significant rate of reversal on loss, equally to halve by 2015, the
number of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation; and by 2020 to have achieved a significant improvement in the
lives of at least 100,000,000 slum dwellers. MDG discovered that as at 2006,
2.5 billion people- 37% of the world population do not have access to toilets,
latrines and other forms of sanitation. Closely tied to this, 1.2 billion
people in the world practice open defecation, posing enormous health hazard to
entire communities- 87% of these people live in rural areas (MDG, 2010).
Although improvements were being recorded in provision of safe drinking water,
over 844 million people still get their drinking water from unimproved sources
(ibid).
viii.
Develop a global
partnership for development
Develop further, an open, rule- based, predictable
and non- discriminatory trading and financial system (including a commitment to
good governance, development and poverty reduction- both nationally and
internationally); address the special needs of least developed countries, land
locked countries and small island developing states; deal comprehensively with
developing countries’ debt; in cooperation with pharmaceutical companies,
provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries; in cooperation
with private sector, make available benefits of new technologies, especially
Information and Communications Technology [ICT] (Mbaya, 2009; MDG, 2010; 2015). Just between 2007 and 2008, Official
Development Assistance (ODA) rose from $103.5 million to $119.8 million,
accounting for 16% increase. The proportion of imports from least developed
countries admitted free of duty into developed countries rose from 70% in 2000
to 80% in 2007. Be that as it may, challenges in that regard still persist
because the target set by MDGs as ODA (0.7% of Gross National Product, GNP) was
only exceeded by Denmark, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway and Sweden (MDG,
2010).
Whether
the MDGs have been met, and if not, to what extent shall be discussed in the
analysis section. But for now we turn to NEPAD.
NEW PARTNERSHIP
FOR AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT
New Partnership for Africa’s
Development (NEPAD) is a pledge by
African leaders to evolve a developmental framework that is home grown and
based on conviction that African countries have a challenging task to eradicate
poverty by promoting both ‘individually’ and ‘collectively’ and ensue sustainable growth and development on the
continent. It is anchored on the determination of Africans to extricate
themselves from the malaise of underdevelopment and marginalization in an increasingly
globalizing world (Wade; cited in NEPAD environmental initiative, 2003: 4). Furthermore, it is a strategic framework for
Africa’s renewal, given as a mandate to the initiating heads of states
(Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa) by the Organization of
African Unity (OAU) to develop an integrated socio- economic development
framework for Africa. This strategic framework document was formally adopted in
the 37th summit of the OAU, now African Union (AU) on 23rd
October, 2001 in Abuja, Nigeria at the Heads of States and Government (HSG) summit.
The document embodied the objective of NEPAD to include: eradication of
poverty; to place African countries both individually and collectively, on a
path of sustainable growth and development; halt marginalization of Africa in
the process of globalization and enhance its full and beneficial integration
into globalized economy; and to accelerate the empowerment of women (Kambru,
cited in NEPAD, 2001; Nkuluh, 2003; NEPAD environmental initiative, 2003: 6).
Within the context of the NEPAD objectives, the key principles of the
initiative are: good governance as a basic requirement for peace, security and
sustainable political and socio- economic development; African ownership and
leadership, as well as broad and deep participation by all sectors of society;
anchoring the development of Africa on its resources and resourcefulness of its
people; partnership between and among African people; accelerating regional and
continental integration among others. NEPAD document was finally ratified in
2002 by HSG summit in Lusaka, Zambia (UNCTAD, 2012).
The programme of action of NEPAD,
(as cited in Kambru, 2001; NEPAD, 2001: 2; AU & NEPAD, 2003) is a holistic,
comprehensive, integrated sustainable initiative for the revival of Africa,
guided by the objectives and principles based on strategic focus to include:
i.
Conditions for sustainable development:
v Peace,
Security, Democracy, Development and Political governance;
v Economic
and corporate governance; and
v Sub-
regional and regional approaches to development
ii.
Social priorities
v Infrastructure;
v Human
resource development;
v Agriculture;
v Environment;
v Culture;
and
v Science
and Technology
iii.
Mobilizing resources
v Capital
flow; and
v Market
access.
These objectives and principles are to be handled by
NEPAD staring committee comprising representatives of the HSG. The UN in its
resolution 57/7 of November 4th, 2002 United Nations General
Assembly (UNGA) requested all its departments and agencies to align their
activities in Africa to NEPAD priorities (Halfdan, 2010). As at 2010, nine
years after its inception, there is little concrete achievement to show for its
activities. However, if it is viewed as an institution in progress, it cannot
be said to have failed (Halfdan, 2010). We discuss the detail in the analysis.
SUBSIDY REINVESTMENT
AND EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMME
Subsidy
Reinvestment and Empowerment Programme (SURE- P), inaugurated on 13th
February, 2012, to apply the federal governments share of the proceeds from
petroleum price increase (subsidy fund) to mitigate the effects of increase in
price by intervening in programmes and projects that would impact positively on
the lives of Nigerians. The basic aim of the programme is to stimulate the
economy and alleviate poverty through the provision of critical infrastructure
and social safety net projects across the country. The programme is implemented
at the federal level through various Project Implementation Units (PIU) across
ministries and extra ministerial departments of the federal government across
Nigeria (SURE- P, 2014). The mandate of the SURE- P was, at inauguration,
placed under a committee headed by Dr. Christopher Kolade to among other
things, oversee to the following: to mitigate the immediate impact of the
‘partial’ petroleum subsidy removal on the population, particularly the poor
and vulnerable segments; this applies to both direct and indirect subsidy
reduction; to accelerate economic transformation through investment in critical
infrastructure projects, so as to drive economic growth and achieve the “Vision
20: 2020; to lay a foundation for successful national safety net programme that
is better targeted at the poor and the most vulnerable on a continuous basis;
and to deliver service with integrity and restore confidence in government. The
committee is to carry this out with utmost probity, transparency and
accountability (SURE- P, 2014).
These
programmes, according to the SURE- P document (2014), were broadly categorized
into two with each serving as a subhead where specific projects/ programmes
were listed there under, and these include:
i.
Infrastructural
development; which encompasses
v SURE-
P Railway programme;
v SURE-
P Roads and Bridges Programme;
v SURE-
P Niger- Delta East- West road programme; and
v SURE-
P FCT satellite town development and light rail programme
ii.
Social Safety- net
programmes, which as sub head:
v Maternal
and Child health programme;
v Mass
Transit programme;
v Public
works programme;
v Technical
and Vocational Education and Training (TVET);
v Community
service, women and youth empowerment programme;
v Graduate
internship programme;
v Culture
and tourism programme;
v Polio
project; and
v HIV/AIDS
project
The proceeds
for implementation of SURE- P was to be realized from the sale of crude oil to
the tune of $90 per barrel. Proceeds realization for the implementation of the
SURE- P project picked up steam in 2012 with N268, 370,000,000 (FGN;
SURE- P, 2012). Afterwards, the proceed
realization peaked in 2014 when the sum of N478. 49 billion accrued to
the Federal government alone; N411.03 billion to State governments;
Local governments got N203.23 billion; N9.86 billion accrued to
FCT; and N31.37 billion as transfers to derivation, ecology, development
of natural resources and stabilization, amounting to N1.13 trillion (FGN,
2014; cited in George, 2015). Whether or
not these amounts have been judiciously utilized to achieve the set target for SURE-
P, which terminated in the year 2015, shall be discussed in the analysis
section of this paper. For now, we turn to NGOs.
NON GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS
Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs), also known as non- profit or voluntary
organizations are non- governmental, non- profit creation, self governing wilful
volunteer led organizations geared towards relief of the suffering of less
privileged members of society (Vickal; 1997; cited in Lewis, 2009; Werker &
Ahmed, 2007; Heywood, 2011). To
Omofomwan and Odia (2009), NGOs are groupings outside of government domain
concentrating in areas such as cultural, socio- economic and political spheres
at all levels in society. Werker and Ahmed (2007) further asserted that they
can literally be described as anything ranging from social groups to
educational institutions and even firms which characterize primarily,
humanitarian or cooperative rather than commercial undertakings that pursue
activities purposely aimed at relieving sufferings, promote interest of the
poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake
community development, most especially in developing countries. This statement
although, does not rule out the fact that NGOs exist in developed countries,
they do. The activities of Green Peace, Amnesty International, Medecins Sans
Frontieres (Doctors without borders), Oxford Committee against Famine (OXFAM),
Socio- Economic Rights and Accountability Project (SERAP), Bring Back our Girls
(BBOG), Nigerian Legal Aid Council among others are only a few examples of the
number of NGOs and their activities both locally and internationally.
NGOs
are known for broadly two basic but interrelated activities- delivery of
service to people in need and organization of advocacy and campaigns in pursuit
of social transformation. In addition, their roles can usefully be analyzed in
three broad components: they are implementers- NGOs implement developmental
programs in places in need of such projects. An example can be seen in the
works of Doctors without Border in treating sick people; they are catalysts- in
this instance, NGOs serve as promoters of development and advancement of social
groups and communities. An example is campaign organized for family planning by
society for family health, in addition to capacity building for communities on
how to manage local affairs; and NGOs are partners- in this regard, NGOs
collaborate with governmental agencies in the initiation and implementation of
development projects in communities as far as these project would be genuinely
implemented (Lewis, 2009). Furthermore, NGOs are active in wide range of
programs such as Democracy building, conflict resolution, policy analysis,
research and provision of information (Lewis, 2009).
Historically
speaking, NGOs are difficult organizations to pin down. Their recorded history
can be traced to English Voluntary organizations which activities are carried
out through the churches where poor people are provided their basic feeding
needs, and over time the English government made laws known as the Poor Laws
which stipulated that charitable organizations were to have tax holidays in
difficult periods. Be this as it may, the history of highly organized NGOs have
been traced to the wake of the World War 1 (WW1) where Save the Children’s Fund
(SCF) was founded by Englantyne Jebb in 1919. Prior to that period,
International Committee of the Red Cross had been established in 1863 (Heywood,
2011).On a later date, OXFAM was established in 1942. These and all other
organizations of like activities were variously referred to as Voluntary or
Charity Organizations. It was not until after World War 2 (WW2) that the term
NGO came into currency due to the formation of the UN, and groups other than
government who carry out their activities in provision of social comfort for
disadvantaged members of society were referred to as NGOs since the UN is an
Inter- Governmental Organization (IGO). Article 71of the UN charter formalized
the activities of NGOs in programs, projects and activities. In fact, the 1980s
is seen as the decade of NGOs because their numbers rose phenomenally in that
period (Lewis, 2009). In the analysis section, we examine how development
programs have been incorporated into NGOs activities and how they contribute to
development administration in Nigeria.
THEORETICAL
FRAME OF ANALYSIS
Owing
to the nature of this paper, issues strategic to development, most especially
development on a continuously progressive basis, the sustainable development
theory has been adopted as the theoretical frame of analysis. Sustainable
development, being a developmental pursuit that aims to meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs (UN World Commission on Environment, 1987; cited in Harris, 2000). There
are basically, three contexts to looking at sustainable development, and these
are economic, social and environmental. At the economic level, sustainable
development must be able to produce goods and services on a continuous basis,
and must maintain optimal level of governmental operations and ‘manageable’
external debt and ‘avoid’ imbalances which damage agriculture and industrial
production; sustainability on a social basis must ensure distributional equity,
adequate provision of social services including health and education, gender
equity, political participation and accountability; ecologically, sustainable
development connotes utilization of both
renewable and non renewable resources are made to the extent that investment on
substitute are made for future utilization without compromising the present
environment (Harris, 2000).
Most often than not, three distinct
pillars are identified as boundaries of sustainable development- social,
economic and ecological but culture and politics are at times additional
categories (CIDA, 1997; cited in Rene & Parto, 2005). Transparency and
openness in governance to create room for wider citizen participation is not
only an end in itself but creates room for sustainability in the long run. As
such, the governing space is not only meant for government and profitable
private sector alone, but should be open to the third sector as civil society
organizations for a more collective, cooperative, comprehensive and elaborate
action on local, regional, national, continental and global issues of public
concern to be tackled on a much deeper, wider, coherent and technical scale for
progressive and all inclusive development (Rene and Parto, 2005: 26).
Furthermore, increased growth and technological advancement uses natural
resources that are largely finite and exhaustible, with a high potential to affect
the environment and slow down development in the medium term while it regresses
it completely on the longer run, thereby affecting human welfare in
unimaginable ways such as health, increased poverty and diminished renewable
and non- renewable resources for human consumption (Parman and Stern, n.d.).
To
soubbotina (2004) sustainable development balances the interests of different
groups of people within the same generation and of those across generations
(cited in Chika and Udumaga, 2015). Accordingly, it balances social, ecological
and economic dimensions of development contained within a perspective task
aimed at promoting ecological carrying capacity of the planet, which is
socially just and economically inclusive, hence promotes environmental, social
and economic sustainability (Baker, 2006; cited in Chika & Udumaga, 2015).
Hiellbroner and Ophulls (1977) opine that there is an intricate connection
between the environment and our political and social institutions, arguing that
scarcity and environmental crisis would exert unprecedented demands on our democratic
political institutions, thereby introducing the idea of sustainable development
to social and political theory (cited in McKinnon, 2008).
Prior
to Haillbroner and Ophulls, Garret Hardin (1968) had extensively reinvigorated
what Leopold (1897) had called attention of the world to in what was regarded
as the first conscious attempt to theorize and enlighten the world on the need
to utilize resources in a manner that allows for rejuvenation of same in real
time for future use. Having observed the trend of resource consumption in the
world around the 1950s and 1960s, Hardin (1968) rejuvenated Leopold’s concerns up
until in 1987, when the UN world commission for environment heed the call and
urged states to utilize resources with sustainability in mind, hence rounds of
summit on environment were organized to complement the various economic and
trade rounds, with the latest being COP 21 held in Paris, France in 2016. A
discussion on sustainable development cannot be complete without the mention of
Leopold’s 1897 work “Gaia earth” meaning ‘spaceship earth’. As a matter of
fact, he believed that land cannot, and should not be owned by man but be
treated as an intrinsic part of a planetary system which no level of economic
or social activity should be aimed at diminishing its value (cited in Hoffman
& Graham, 2006).
Sustainable
development serves as an attempt to environmental and intergenerational
dimension within neoclassical economic development theory (Purvis &
Granger, 2004; cited in CSDUW, 2006: 23). In addition, working within
neoclassical economic development suggests that sustainable development must
depend on the traditional method, often challenged as belief that increases
economic growth (although more equitably distributed) will guarantee the necessary
development for human conditions measured in Human Development Index (HDI). The
means of evaluating policy on sustainable development hinges on the level of
indices of human development and performance, Environmental Policy Integration
(EPI), geographical and spatial analysis among others (CSDUW, 2006: 24). In
essence, sustainable development explains the fact that states, having
developed considerably today would not like to be characterized as
underdeveloped tomorrow. Consequently, they constantly search for means to remain
developed for the developed ones, and for the developing ones they constantly
struggle to catch up on the level of development (while maintaining
environmental equilibrium for future use) of others or even surpass it if they
can afford to do so. Accordingly, the initiation of the MDGs, NEPAD and SURE- P
are geared towards ensuring intergovernmental and national strategy for
development in order to place third world countries, and Nigeria in the case of
aligning SURE- P to both MDGs and NEPAD goals in the quest for national
development in the country. The involvement of NGOs on the other hand, has to
do with incorporation of the third sector because the burden may be too much
for governments to bear alone in addition to complementing and checkmating the activities
of authoritarian governments. Bottom line is that all inclusive development
must be attained through noble means.
METHODOLOGY
Considering
the nature of the paper, the study utilizes the secondary sources of data,
where documented materials such as official documents, newspapers, magazines,
books, journals and internet materials were consulted in order to obtain data
for the study. Further, the qualitative method of data analysis was adopted for
study considering the fact that the paper analyzes the implementation of
ethically and morally agreed international and local development initiative,
and examine how they fair in Nigeria vis a vis already stated international
best practices.
ANALYSIS OF DEVEVELOPMENTAL INITIATIVES IN NIGERIA
In
this section, the paper tries to analyze the level at which all the development
initiatives have been implemented in Nigeria and what they achieved through the
years. This is going to be done in a sense that it captures SURE- P, NEPAD and
MDGs since all have been coordinated to be implemented by the Nigerian
government. In addition, we examine the roles that NGOs have played in
complementing government efforts at development and how they have been able to
bring about accountability and protection of human rights in the country. The
various sectors of the Nigerian state would be examined to broadly cover
social, political, economic and ecological issues to determine whether the
individual initiatives have succeeded or failed to address the ever increasing developmental
challenges in the country. If they have succeeded, to what extent; and if they
have failed, is it total or partial failure in the face of the country’s
diversity and population?
Although
it may be difficult to pinpoint individual achievements of these individual
initiatives, the line is indeed clear cut for all to see. While it is easier
for everyone to identify MDG and SURE- P projects, that of NEPAD cannot be
clearly identified, except if it is to be measured in terms of it abstract
value to development in Nigeria- institution of good governance. Paradoxically,
good governance would have to be examined in its complete ramification and not
just the existence of democratic governance. For instance what is the human
right records in Nigeria in addition to peaceful transition from civilian to
civilian regime? In spite of all efforts put into ensuring sustainable economic
growth and development, evidences still suggests that the goals are still far
from being achieved. The illiteracy rate in Nigeria stands at over 50% of the
Nigerian population, with 65 million uneducated people resident in the rural
areas still unable to read or write, over 10 million Nigerian children are out
of school, 60% Nigerians lacking basic qualification for any kind of meaningful
employment, the future for Nigerian human development indices is gloomy
(UNESCO, 2015; cited in Vanguard, December 17, 2015). This gloomy picture still
persists in the face of MDG and SURE- P educational structures put in place to
boost education sector in the country. Often, policy makers in Nigeria imagine
that if structures are put in place, then the rest would take care of itself with
very little or without any effort at all. That is why there are many class
rooms built but without employing more teachers to accommodate the ever increasing
population that enrol in schools.
Closely
tied to this is unemployment. The unemployment and underemployment level in
Nigeria rose from 12.1% in quarter one of 2016 to 13.3% in quarter 2 of the
same year representing 26.06 million people up from 24.5 million people in the
first quarter (National Bureau of Statistics, 2016; cited in Information
Nigeria, August 31, 2016). Despite the pledges and commitments made by NEPAD,
MDGs and SURE- P that poverty shall be reduced in the country through opening
up of the economy and diversifying it further to provide for FDIs, unemployment
still keeps skyrocketing at an alarming rate, suggesting that either the
programmes are not being implemented the right way or resources meant for
implementation are misappropriated for other purposes. Closely knit to this is
that NEPAD has been a dubious initiative right from its inception as already
submitted by Taylor:
Globalization
is strictly anchored on neoliberal political economy, where markets and
economies need to open up for multinational corporations to increasingly play a
vital role, in collaboration with host governments, which it is believed more
FDIs could be made thereby creating employment opportunities, reducing poverty
and strengthening domestic economy in the process. NEPAD was initiated to play
the role of further incorporating Africa into the globalized liberal economy
for ‘sustained socio- economic growth and development’. Be this as it may, the
initiators of NEPAD brought that about in order to increase their access to
capital increasing their chances of creating a global bourgeois class that
inappropriately exploits the resources of Africa at the detriment of the
predominant African Peasants solely for the advancement of increasingly
connected global bourgeois class (Taylor, n. d.).
Arguments have been put forward that NEPAD had been
able to institute democracy and good governance. Whether that is true, we shall
discuss it under the discussion on political advancement as regards these
development initiatives. In
light of the need for self sufficiency, there is a fundamental contradiction in
NEPAD’s partnership agenda with the rest of the world since African leaders
still accept the fact that ODAs are still to be aligned to NEPAD’s objectives
from the MDGs. This does not sound like partnership, but rather a superior-
subordinate relationship since Africa has no plan to become self sufficient
even in the distant future.
As
at 2010, the maternal mortality rate in Nigeria was 840 per 100,000 live
births. An increase from 473.4 in 1990, whereas child mortality of children
under the age of five was 28 per 1000 and neonatal deaths is 5 per 1000 live
births. In addition, it is recorded that 23 women die giving birth annually as
at the same period (where we work, accessed, May 12, 2014). Looking at the
maternal mortality rate suggests clearly, that prior to MDGs and NEPAD,
maternal mortality rate was relatively average, but almost ten years after the
initiation of these programmes maternal mortality rate soared by almost 100%
which is an indication of lip- service paid to development programmes of these
kinds by the Nigerian government. The child mortality stood at 28 per 1000 as
of 2010 and neonatal deaths 5 per 1000 in 2010 suggesting a reduction of 82.1%
in child mortality rates within this period. The implication is that government
paid so much attention to child mortality than maternal mortality (where we
worked, accessed, May 12, 2014). However, with the advent of SURE- P in 2012,
the programme recruited 6,630 community health attendants to be deployed to
areas in desperate need of professional health workers so as to attend to
antenatal, neonatal and postnatal health services served to tackle the rising
rate of maternal and child mortality (Okwudili & Ugwerua, 2014), but these
deployments were seen around areas of postings from mid 2014, which in itself
constituted delay in implementation. Be that as it may, it is better late than
never because as from 2014, it was observed that these workers attended to
pregnant women in various clinics at local government levels even though there
is no available statistics to ascertain the impact of that programme yet.
Among
some of the successes of NEPAD as argued by some of its protagonists was that
it had been able to institute democracy and good governance. In this instant it
is pertinent for us to clearly differentiate between the presence of democracy
and good governance, as the mere transition from one civil rule to another may
not necessarily translate to good governance, although for the fact that
transitions are peaceful and constitutional, democracy could be said to have
made an inroad but good governance requires much more than that. Good
governance denotes accountability, transparency, all inclusive decision making
process; equality before the law, and guarantee of human inalienable freedoms-
speech and expression, association, movement and peaceful assembly, observance
of the Habeas Corpus principle among other freedoms (Heywood, 2006). It will be
an understatement to say that Nigerian citizens most often get arrested for
misdemeanour offenses and detained for days, or even weeks without being taken
for trial, where top government officials charged with similar offenses or
worse but they only get invited to the security agencies at a time of their
choosing with court cases fixed at their convenience, if ever the case reaches
the courts. In essence, there is a double standard in law enforcement in Nigeria-
one for the affluent and another for the commoner. The arrest of Supreme and
high court judges by the Department of State Service (DSS) on October 9, 2016 for
instance serves as a reference point here. Members of the Nigerian Bar
Association (NBA), the National Assembly and other influential agencies who
have used the Nigerian political and legal system to protect certain interests
and criminal elements are conspiring against the DSS for arresting people
involved in corrupt practices even in the face of evidences obtained, which is
enough to indict the judges.
Furthermore,
Nigerians do not have access to information on the activities of government so
they can hold it accountable for misappropriation of public funds and related
matters of public importance. Although the freedom of information bill has been
passed, Nigerians do not get information on the expenditure of government most
often in the name of national security. Truly, national security matters are of
paramount importance, but not all government spending ought to be classified as
national security issues. There is inherent bias in the provision of relevant
information to Nigerians on the activities of government. This is because while
top government functionaries obtain that for next to nothing, even journalists
find it difficult to get the same due to their proximity to government. A case
in point is the disappearance of the budget in the National Assembly and the
budget padding saga, where information of grave national importance were denied
the press in their efforts to substantiate claims made by the former chair,
house committee on appropriations at the House of Representatives. All these
cannot be termed as good governance while democracy is what we claim as our
form of government. Most members in the national assembly cannot interpret the
constitution and other laws appropriately either due to their low level of
knowledge or in order to deliberately skew most decisions in their favour.
Sustainable
development cannot take place if our current consumption is not carried out in
such a way that the environment is protected and managed to reproduce for future
consumption purposes. Many take this lightly because they feel the environment
is not really that important as far as development is concerned. Events in
Nigeria in recent past proved to the contrary. Nigeria loses 0.6km of
vegetation to desertification annually, Lake Chad keeps shrinking at an
alarming rate, denying hundreds of thousands source of livelihood; the flood
levels recorded in the country is a sign of deforestation and poor urban
planning which causes erosion and loss of lives and property worth hundreds of
millions in Naira and at the same time resulting in the disappearance of over
70 to 80% of Nigeria’s original forests. ; Oil spillages have denied over 70%
Niger- Deltans natural resources for economic activities. These people can no
longer fish or farm on most of their lands as a result of over 600 spillages
reported by oil companies on an annual basis (Natureevernfornbundet, retrieved,
15th October, 2016). In spite of the pledges, commitments, resources
allocated for environmental sustainability by MDGs, NEPAD and SURE- P there is
this seeming case of the popular magic dictum, ‘the more you look, the less you
understand’ because somehow, the resources earmarked for such programmes
disappear in the process of implementing commitments to environmental
sustainability. The only avenue where government is seen to be doing anything
on the environment is the annual tree planting campaigns. Once a number of
hundred trees are planted in these events, then they dry up before two months
after planting due to negligence in maintaining them even in the face of
millions of Naira spent on the tree planting occasion. In essence, more money
is spent on occasions and functions rather than the actual exercise of tree
planting.
From
all statistics presented in this section, it is quite clear that the MDGs has
not fully been realized at the expiration of it target date- 2015, hence the
initiation of a new and more ambitious development goal at the global level
which is set to carry on from the shortfalls of MDGs to cover another 15 years
and end in 2030- the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Not only that, the
NEPAD programme has been a huge failure considering the fact that it has not
been able to implement almost all of its pledges in Nigeria and in Africa in
general, which is why one of its founding members, Abdoulaye Wade disowned the
programme stating that “millions of Dollars have been spent on travel and
accommodation allowances in the name of NEPAD without a single school or health
centre built in its name” (cited in Taylor, n. d.). in this regard, SURE- P
scores higher than NEPAD because it has been able to procure and contribute to
mass transit, where buses could be seen in motor parks with SURE- P
inscriptions on them; clinics have witnessed the arrival of new professional
health workers on the behest of the programme; youths and women have also been
seen cleaning streets in towns and cities on account of SURE- P, which, in
comparison, NEPAD cannot boast of. While poverty cannot completely be
eradicated, development can reduce it to the barest minimum, where development
itself is a desirable goal to be pursued for better humanity.
ANALYSIS OF ROLES PLAYED BY NGOs IN NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Activities
of NGOs are classified into typologies, and these are both sector- wide and on
the basis of the nature of their operations. As may have been stated earlier at
the conceptual review section to this paper, characterization of NGOs according
to their operations fall into two categories- the advocacy and policy kind of
NGOs. However, in this section, we merge their nature of operations and examine
their contributions to development in Nigeria on the basis of their sector-
wide operations. While NGOs cannot be held accountable for inactions on their
activities, there is the existence of what Lewis (2009) described as the
“bogus” NGOs, and these are categorized further into two- the Government Non-
governmental Organizations (GONGOs) which are created to promote the policies
of that government and portray the government in a positive light; and the
second category of bogus NGOs are those created solely for the advancement of
the self centred interests of their proprietors, which judging by the poverty
level in Nigeria, this category abound in the country.
NGOs
in Nigeria have collaborated with government ministries and extra ministerial
agencies to enlighten Nigerians on their rights and the need to participate in
the polity fully, and not just a form a participation that stops at the voting
level, as that is not the only form of participation there is in any political
setting. Alliance for Africa (AFA) for instance has collaborated with National
Orientation Agency (NOA) to enlighten and sensitize women to participate fully
in politics, most especially getting more qualified women to contest political
offices (AFA, accessed, 16 October 2016). The Legal Aid Council, under it
Access to Justice Programme has assisted over 9 million Nigerians who cannot
afford legal counsel in courts obtain justice at no expense at all. In addition,
it organizes sensitization workshops to enlighten people on their basic human
rights and how to go about relating with law enforcement agencies if they ever
find themselves in awkward position pertaining to Law (News 24, 6, October,
2015).
In
terms of environmental protection, Heinrich Boll Stiflung creates awareness on
environmental protection by getting people to talk about their live experiences
regarding climate change and how it affects them. In addition, the foundation
sponsors 1000 students on an annual basis in undergraduate and graduate
programmes to study in European countries (HBS, accessed, 16th
October, 2016). In the same vein, TY Danjuma Foundation improves health and
educational programmes and opportunities for Nigerians. They have so far
implemented over 184 projects in Nigeria at the cost of N2, 006, 329,
070. 91. The foundation, for instance built primary schools in parts of the
country, they treated eye related health challenges, they also renovated spoilt
hand pumps built by government among other such activities (TY Danjuma
Foundation, accessed, October 16, 2016).
NGOs have been in the service of disabled
individuals in Nigeria. Many NGOs offer special assistance to disabled people
in the country in order for the nation to have an all inclusive development
across the state. An example of such NGOs is the Women Farmers Advancement
Network (WOFAN), where over 700 deaf and blind students are provided special
access to education on an annual basis. In addition to provision of education
for disabled, WOFAN provides community development services where governments
have not been able to reach, or are yet to reach as a result of shortfalls in
the availability of information on such communities. That NGO has been able to
improve access to clean drinking water in 48 communities located in
Bauchi, kano, and Sokoto states; it has
also trained 340 women in the maintenance and repair of hand pumps; and have
trained communities and individuals in the digging and maintenance of
ventilated pit latrines to help communities maintain sanitary health conditions
in their respective communities across
the already mentioned states (WOFAN, accessed, October 16, 2016).
The already mentioned activities
are only few illustrations of how NGOs are complementing the efforts of
government in policy implementation across Nigeria and how those involved in
advocacy are holding government accountable for its actions. Closely related to
this, an analysis on this section will not be complete without a mention of the
Bring Back Our Girls (BBOG) group on how they have been able, on their own and
with support of the international community ensure that the abducted school
girls from a Secondary school in Chibok were not forgotten by government, and
in the process placing the Nigerian government into a corner to the extent of
accepting the option of negotiating (facilitated by the International Committee
of the Red Cross and Swiss government) with the terrorist group- Islam State in
the Levant, West Africa command, formerly known as the Jama’atul Ahlis Sunnah
Lid Da’wat Wal Jihad (Boko Haram). This has resulted into positive inroads on
the girls with a release of 21 of the school girls mid October, 2016 (New York
Times, 2016). These among other are some of the contributions made by NGOs to
national development in Nigeria, although we cannot rule out the existence of
bogus NGOs that exits to serve some selected interests or either government of
their proprietors.
FINDINGS
Having
examined the various issues involved in the pursuit for development by third
world countries as Nigeria, this study found out that in the face of huge
resources and commitments made in order to have sustainable development, only
little successes are recorded over time and this has to do with:
i.
The delay in
implementing these signed commitments where programmes that are meant to elapse
are only implemented few months before their due dates of expiration. Looking
at the implementation of the MDGs and the SURE- P in Nigeria, one discovers
that for programmes build to terminate in 2015, implementation of most of their
policy projects started approximately in mid 2014;
ii.
Funds meant for most of
these developmental programmes are most often misappropriated by the
individuals placed in charge of implementing the projects. At times, the funds
are kept in fixed deposit accounts to generate interests and at some other
times they are diverted for use in other ventures where implementing officials
expect to gain from;
iii.
Governments and
development partners often only pay lip- service to development, thereby
stating and committing to development objectives that are not sincerely
implemented, as NEPAD initiative where governments are not able to implement
policies in the name of that initiative;
iv.
Most often, governments
refuse collaborating with NGOs genuinely pursuing development where bogus NGOs
are created by governments or by officials in government in order to facilitate
personal aggrandizement or have these NGOs promote unpopular government
policies;
v.
Ambitious programmes
are committed to such that at the end of these programmes attaining the
objectives of these developmental programmes becomes practically impossible as
has been seen in the MDGs, which has to be replaced by SDGs, which in itself is
more ambitious than MDGs;
vi.
There is an
overreliance of African countries on OECD for development assistance and technological
advancement. For instance, both MDG and NEPAD programme are anchored on
assistance from OECD for technological advancement which in itself is often
explained to mean ‘internet penetration’ rather than the ability to produce the
gadget that allows access to the internet.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Issues
of development are always trivial to discuss considering the complexity of the
subjects involved. In this paper, the contributions of MDGs, NEPAD, SURE- P and
NGOs to the development of Nigeria has been examined, and the paper discovered
that in the face of huge resources and time committed to development
programmes, very little achievements are recorded due largely to delays in the
implementation process; lip- service commitment to development; ambitious development
agendas; overreliance on foreign assistance and technology; personification of
public projects by officials, which often leads to corruption; and a host of
many other hindrances to realization of the development agendas already being
pursued by governments and development agencies, both locally and
internationally. The third sector also has immense role to play in the
development of countries within which they operate. These NGOs have been found
to reach sectors and areas of society where governments find difficult to
reach, thereby complementing the efforts of governments at development even
though some of such organizations could be bogus in their nature and
activities. Taking all these into consideration the paper recommended
that:
i.
Processes for the
implementation of development policy instruments are to kick start immediately
these programmes have been ratified by various governments and international
organizations in order to have relative success in implementing them before due
dates of termination;
ii.
Better mechanism should
be evolved for public financial management to curb the rate of misappropriation
of funds meant for development project, and all officials placed in charge of
projects should be closely monitored to ensure compliance to public financial
regulations;
iii.
Governments and
development agencies should pay genuine attention to development programmes so
as to initiate programmes where implementation is made possible even by local
communities with only little technical assistance from government or donor
agencies;
iv.
Governments are to
collaborate with NGOs that are in the genuine pursuit of public welfare so as
to ensure complementary initiation and implementation of development programmes
and projects;
v.
African countries,
especially Nigeria should not over rely on foreign assistance before it can
pursue meaningful development as local technologies often get neglected in the
pursuit of foreign ones that never seem to arrive on time or usually come with
dubious means of intensifying reliance in the longer run.
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